Culture and Psychology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Culture and Psychology - Assignment Example Although the apartments of Japanese prostitutes are clean and well-maintained, yet they have lost much of the sense of dressing because of imitating European prostitutes. However, they may not be very well-educated. Hence, we can say that prostitution in Japan is a well-organized business. German prostitutes, in contrast, may be so educated that, Pitu (2011) writes that, â€Å"In Berlin, you might meet a prostitute with a PhD.† Prostitution became legalized in Germany in 2002. Since then, the business has been growing itself very rapidly. There are thousands of registered brothels in Berlin and other parts of the country. Street prostitution is very common, carried out under supervision of pimps. The factor that influences street prostitution is the economic instability of people, and especially women, who become prostitutes to fulfill their financial requirements. Prostitutes also serve to procure drug business. They also work at bars, where they lure men into buying expensive drinks and avail sexual services. We see that in both the countries, the biggest factor that triggers prostitution is the financial instability of some groups of people, who bring their women into prostitution to meet their financial needs. These countries are also well-known for their sex trade or sex trafficking, in which women are forced into prostitution and are abused sexually. Since prostitution is legal, brothels place ads with government employment agencies to hire prostitutes. When not enough local women are recruited to fill the places in brothels, women from other places are brought via sex trafficking to work in the brothels. Hence, the factors that trigger prostitution in these countries are not cultural, but based on financial needs and business requirements. Japanese have been known to be very flexible in accepting foreign sexual behaviors within their own culture. Japanese do not show public

European History 1914-to present Essay Example for Free

European History 1914-to present Essay The period that immediately followed the First World War was marked by the autocratic regimes in Austria, Germany and Russia being replaced by republics as they were overthrown. There seemed to be a promise of an era of democracy as the seven states that had all been newly created adopted the republican form of government giving the impression that democracy had finally been found after the First World War. However, this did not last as after only two decades, a form of dictatorship took over most of the democratic European countries. While some countries became communists, others took to fascism which resulted to totalitarian form of government (Gardner, Kleiner Mamiya, 2005). In totalitarianism individuals had absolutely no freedom in their life as all political, intellectual, social, cultural, economic and even religious and spiritual activities were subordinated to the authority of the rulers and the government. This form of rule was characterized by the rulers of the government as a central power controlling all the aspects of the citizens lives through force and repression such that those who held views that were different from the ideologies of the rulers and had different practices in the mentioned aspects of their lives were considered to be against the state hence enemies. Totalitarianism was manifested through mass-media that was state controlled, one party state in which the party controlled everything that went on in the state, mass surveillance accompanied with state terrorism and restricted free discussion or criticism especially of the governmental ideologies. In European countries such as such as Russia under Stalin and Germany under Hitler, totalitarianism and the practices of the government received overwhelming support from the citizens (Gardner, Kleiner Mamiya, 2005). The support was however not spontaneous, it required the rulers to be charismatic so that he would be able to draw support. The rapid development in infrastructure especially communication and transportation played a great role in the rise and spread of the totalitarianism and growth of its popularity amongst the citizens in the countries in which it was practised. This paper seeks to discuss totalitarianism and the reasons for its rise in Europe in the early 20th century. Totalitarianism is characterized by the state pursuing some goal that is special such as conquest of a certain region, exclusion of all others who hold different ideologies from those ones of the state or industrialization. All resources of the state usually are directed and focussed on achievement of these goals regardless of their cost. Anything that furthers the attainment of the goal is fully supported while the things that threaten to foil this achievement are rejected. It is a form of obsession that triggers an ideology that explains and describes things in terms of the intended goal, justifying all obstacles that could arise and all the forces that may struggle against the state in achieving the desired goal (Gardner, Kleiner Mamiya, 2005). This results to the state getting popular support from the citizens which gives it the power to practice any form of governmental actions. Anyone opposing the goals or ideologies of the state is considered evil and political differences within the state not allowed. Achievement of the goal is never acknowledged even in the event the state actually gets to achieve it. This is because totalitarianism is entirely founded on the ideology of achieving the goal such that in the event the goal is achieved then it should cease to exist. The pursuit of specific goals by different leaders for the states they ruled is considered to be the main reason for the rise of totalitarianism in Europe. As mentioned earlier, fascism was one of the main reasons for totalitarianism. This ideology was common in Germany and Italy. It originated with Mussolini Benito in his rule over the country. This ideology in which the proponents advocated for the creation of a single party state was a reaction against equality, liberty and fraternity that were being proposed by democratic nations such as France and Britain after they won the war. Fascists argued that nations and races usually are in a conflict in which only the strongest and the healthiest survive. Apart from being healthy the strongest also survive by asserting themselves against the weak through repression and in combat (Griffiths 2005). These governments prohibited and suppressed opposition and any form of criticism to the government. In Germany, races that were not German such as the Jews, Slavs and individuals who were either sick or disabled were targeted for execution as Hitler’s government sought to have a nation of pure healthy Germans. Fascism claimed that a nation was the race and hence sought to execute everyone who was not of the race of the rulers (Griffiths 2005). Fascism is also characterized by respect and love for collective organization in which individuals work together to achieve a certain goals and ideology. This formed totalitarianism in Italy and Germany. In which the citizens were organized against other individuals of other races that were considered a threat to achieving a nation that was formed of one superior race. Nazism was movement mostly in Germany which was is also referred to as National Socialism. This movement sought to spread the ideologies of Adolf Hitler’s government in Germany and the world as a whole. Nazism is argued to be a form of fascism as its characteristics are the same as those ones of fascism as it featured racism, expansion and obedience/loyalty to one leader. Hitler expected everyone to be loyal to him and executed anyone who defiled his orders. Nazism also had theories about other races which portrayed them as inferior to German Aryans and a threat to its existence hence the necessity to get rid of them. This led to the massive execution of the Jews and the disabled Germans as they were considered unfit for survival according to fascism. This ideology is therefore one of the reasons for the rise of totalitarianism in Germany and most of its neighbouring nations (Klaus Vondung 2005). Bolshevism-Stalinism was the reason for the rise of totalitarianism in Russia. Bolshevism was a movement formed by professionals who believed in military control over the country and democratic centralism such the party (Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party) took form of internal hierarchy in which individuals from other groups were not allowed to lead the party. Only these members made decisions and any party that was formed to challenge Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party it was purged (Worley, Morgan Laporte 2002). This movement greatly supported single party state and is believed to have caused the rise of Stalinism. Stalinism refers to the form of government used by Joseph Stalin and those who were allied to his ideologies (Worley, Morgan Laporte 2002). This ideology is sometimes referred to as red fascism as it is a form of fascism. Stalinism refers to a form of governance that is characterized by oppression of the citizens and extensive spying by the government so that individuals can not criticize or form movements to overthrow it. This system was also characterized by purging in which those who were opposed to the government ideologies were sent to prison camps or sometimes killed. The state used propaganda and established some form of cult around a leader who was a dictator so that he would have absolute control over the communist party and maintain control over all the citizens of Russia. Apart from the mentioned countries, Austria also participated in the rise of totalitarianism by supporting Nazism and Fascism. Its Prime Minister Kurt Waldheim is said to have assisted Germany in transporting Jews to dearth camps. Several other Eastern and Central European countries also got obsessed with the fascist movement (Klaus Vondung 2005). This included Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Slovakia, Lithuania and Croatia. The fascist movements in these countries were all characterized racism specifically against the Jews whom they associated with communism which they greatly despised. Spain is the only country which though fascist never got obsessed with race and believing in the ant-Jewish conspiracies that characteristic of German’s Nazism. The rise of totalitarianism in Europe during the early 20th century was mainly due to fascism. Both Nazism and Bolshevism-Stalinism which were the main movements in Europe at this time and are all forms of fascism which emphasizes on the power of the state over the citizens. A significant characteristic of these movements is racism in which each state believed in being occupied by only those who were of its race hence eliminating those who belonged to different races or had different practices than were contrary to the ideologies of the ruling government. The most affected race in Europe was the Jewish. The rise of totalitarianism in Europe can therefore be solely attributed to fascism. References Gardner, H. , Kleiner, S. Mamiya, C. , (2005). Gardners Art Through The Ages: The Western Perspective. Sidney: Cengage Learning. Griffiths, R. (2005). Fascism second ed. New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group. Klaus Vondung, K. (2005). The Apocalypse in Germany, Columbia and London: Univ. of Missouri Press. Redles, D. (2005). Hitler’s Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York, NY: New York Univ. Press. Worley, M. , Morgan, K. Laporte, N. , (2002). Bolshevism, Stalinism And The Comintern: Perspectives On Stalinization. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.

Importance of language in science education

Importance of language in science education Mauritius has lately seen a decline in the number of students opting for science. According to the Mauritius Research Council (2004) increasingly science is becoming less popular in schools. Furthermore, less than 30% of the pupils doing school certificate will opt for science. There are many reasons for this. The science subjects are often considered to be difficult and there is a perceived lack of job opportunities. The low ratio of scientist to population in Mauritius does not augur well for the future. There is a need to produce a critical mass of broad based and specialized scientists during the coming decades to facilitate the emergence of the knowledge economy to serve the region (Education strategic plan, 114). This chapter attempts to shed some light on the occurrence of the decline of popularity of science subjects and the situation in Mauritius.This introductory chapter also discusses the reasons behind my choice for the research focus, aims and sub questions. 1.1. Education in Mauritius Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills and something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgment and wisdom. (Rughooputh, 2005, p.2). Moving from a mono-crop based economy to a more diverse and complex economic structure which is spreading its reach towards the service sector, Mauritius is now one of the leading nations in terms of economic growth in the African and Indian Ocean region. If Mauritius aims at becoming a globally competitive nation, it is critical that the country shores up its capacity in Tertiary Education, in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) and in human resources generally (Budget Speech, 2008-2009, p.11.). Education is vital to a nation addressing human development, satisfying employment and in setting the pace for social mobility. It is also of crucial importance in providing a highly skilled labor force as per the economic requirements of the challenges of time. (Rughooputh,2000 ,pp 1-17 ) The ultimate objective of any educational enterprise is to improve student achievement so that individuals may fulfil their personal aspirations and become contributing members of society. Improving student achievement and attaining excellence is hard. According to Classen (1999) it is by equipping children with knowledge, skills and attitudes that we can ensure that they become full fledged citizens and self directed life long learners who can co-exist in a world characterized by diversity and pluralism. 1.2 Importance and role of Science education Recent studies on the status of science and technology in Mauritius, focusing on the education sector, show that science as a subject is becoming increasingly less attractive to pupils, as is the case in many countries across the world. (Suddhoo, 2003). Our current lacking in science could have implications on the quality of our human resource, particularly within the context of the vision of transforming the country into a Cyber island. There needs to be a complete review of the teaching and learning of science in schools. The current state of affairs is already leading to pupils and students shying away from science for many reasons varying from science to be perceived as a difficult subject to the lack of career opportunities for those opting for scientific subjects. (Education strategic plan., 2008-2020, p. 62). 1.3. Importance of language in science education Reasoning and argument, so essential to communication in science, proceed in words. The more contentious the argument, the simpler and more charged the words (Hoffmann, 1988). The choice of the language of instruction used in school is of utmost importance. This is an issue that needs attention in Mauritius especially in view of its specificity and also the socio-economically disadvantaged areas where both family and community exposure to the English language (the official language of instruction and assessment in schools) is limited. (Education Strategic plan., 2008-2020, p. 38). The use of English in examinations is not going to change in the near future though in the new education strategic plan proposed by the current education minister there was mention for a need of broad based national consultation concerning the change of the official language of instruction and assessment. (Education Strategic plan., 2008-2020, p 38). The use of the language of instruction used in schools is of utmost importance to ensure that all the students learn effectively. Mauritian children have a great resource- bilinguism and sometimes even trilinguism. However, this causes some problems in schools. For example, there is quite a lot of Creole interference in classes especially for low ability students 1.4 Professional context and research focus Our island has a highly diverse population. The official language is English whereas the vernacular language is Creole. According to the latest census (2000) Creole is spoken and used in daily interactions by 80.5% of the population, and English is spoken and used in daily interactions by less than 1% of the population. Students entering the secondary schools therefore, come from a Creole-speaking environment and English is the language of instruction in schools is English. My concern is that the quality of results is poor. As an educator, I have the interests of my pupils at heart. From discussions with my own students and colleagues, one prominent issue stuck out. Students have difficulties with the medium of language (that is English).According to the latest census (2000), English although it is the official language of the state (and thus, the official language of instruction in schools) is spoken and used in daily interactions by less than 1% of the population. There is a major problem in the writing, reading and understanding the language of biology and consequently the pupils do not manage to reach the adequate level of scientific literacy. This is mainly because at the heart of science is a language concept: asking and answering questions. It is argued that language plays an active role in the development of scientific ideas (Ford and Peat., 1988, p.12). There is a need therefore to investigate, to see how much language is a barrier to successful studies in science. There is moreover, a need to explore how low language efficiency affects the understanding and performance of students. I intend to explore different teaching strategies and I believe that it will help me advance in professional knowledge. Our current lacking in science could have implications on the quality of our human resource, particularly within the context of the vision of transforming the country into a Cyber island. There needs to be a complete review of the teaching and learning of science in schools. The current state of affairs is already leading to pupils and students shying away from science for many reasons varying from science to be perceived as a difficult subject to the lack of career opportunities for those opting for scientific subjects. (Education strategic plan., 2008-2020, p. 62). The current disaffection for scientific disciplines, coupled with the need to open the minds of children to observation, deductive reasoning, teamwork, free thinking and universal truths leaves us no choice but to rethink the way we teach science to children, if we want them to enjoy learning and to think both imaginatively and rationally. In the Mauritian Education system, it is a fact that we are bilingual, and that most of the classes and exams( the exception being French obviously) at the primary, secondary and tertiary level are conducted in English. There is a major interference of Creole in the language used and written by pupils. Stress on proper English can inhibit many children from expressing themselves in the kind of language they use at home, while learning for all too many students means guessing what answers the teacher expects. It is a simple truth that teachers communicate both information and values to their students, and do so almost exclusively through language. It is based on research using transcripts of actual lessons to show how questions demanding factual (rather than reasoned) answers are used-if not overused-in arts subjects, and how science teachers can learn to avoid vocabulary, which is too abstract or technical. (Barnes et al, 1989, pp.5-6) It therefore seems that language that we are using in class to teach is of great importance. From my three years teaching experience one major problem I have encountered in my biology classes is the pupils have inadequate language proficiency( English in our context) to be able to write their answers correctly and sometimes even in understanding the questions set. I need to improve their language efficiency and consequently their biology proficiency. Language learning is not a simple linear process, but involves the ongoing development of skills for a range of purposes. This development is largely the result of the social contexts and interactions in which learning occurs. By focusing on the ways in which teachers can scaffold language and learning in the content areas, one can take a holistic approach-one that appreciates the struggle of students learning a new language, while simultaneously developing subject knowledge in it, and the challenge for teachers to address these needs( Gibbons, 2002, p.3). As an educator, I sincerely wish to be able to create capable, confident biology students who are effective communicators through oral and written language. They should be able to make informed decisions for themselves especially in a scientific way and to contribute wisely to the society and nation at large. According to Yore et al., (1995) the acquisition of both language literacy and science literacy is dependent on the students ability to think critically in similar ways. They also assert that the reading process corresponds to the process of scientific inquiry. Both require skills in setting purposes, questioning, predicting, analyzing evidence and drawing conclusions, and communicating results. Many children find science to be an interesting subject. We have to develop ways to make students enjoy science content, and develop their thinking and literacy skills during different activities. Research has shown that, reading and writing about science help develop and reinforce desired science concepts (Yore, 2003; Palincsar Magnussen, 2001; Thier, 2002). Upon examination, it is clear that scientific literacy and language literacy have much in common (Alvermann, 2004; Baker, 2004; Casteel Isom, 1994). They work together in strengthening skills and strategies in both curricular areas. As Marlene Thier (2002) explains, Good science-and effective teaching and learning in science-is dependent upon strong language skills. Indeed, science and language are inextricably linked in the pursuit, determination and communication of meaning in the context of the physical world( Ogle and Mckee., 2005, p1) That is why the research focus I am planning to carry out is an action research 1.4.1Sub-questions: What is the current language literacy of my form 3 students? What aspects of language should I deal with as a science educator? Why there is a need to take remedial action change concerning language in biology teaching and learning? How can I improve students performance at my school in biology? Aims: I want to know how my form 3 students perceive biology and what they believe to be the major obstacles in order to succeed with good grades. At the end of the dissertation, I want to show that one problem that I face in biology teaching can be diminished through different teaching and learning styles. Furthermore, an important outcome of biology teaching is to improve their writing. Therefore, through various activities I want to develop that. The purpose of my study is: To improve my teaching capacities. To increase performance of biology students at my school through different activities. To develop an appreciation of biology in my students. To diminish the incidence of language being a major barrier to the successful and efficient learning of the subject.

Discussing Bresslers definition of Marxism as a literary theory :: essays papers

Discussing Bresslers definition of Marxism as a literary theory Marxism is not the hot topic it once was. With the collapse of Communist U.S.S.R., mainstream North America had thought it had seen the last of Marxism and the communist party. However, with the People's Republic of China becoming a reality, those early beliefs may have proven to be premature. Defining Marxism is not difficult. Marxism is the belief that the common workingman (the proletariat) is under a rule of tyranny by the upper class owners (the bourgeois.) Someday (according to Marx) the proletariats will rise up, overthrow the bourgeois and create a society of communism. Communism is the political idea in where a society would be controlled mostly by the government. Personal property would not be allowed and therefore eliminate the bourgeois; a utopian society in which every man works for the common good. Marxists believe that (based on the works of Karl H. Marx) everything we do or think is influenced by the bourgeois. This is simple. Marxism becomes difficult when defining it as a literary theory. The original intentions of Marx were those of social and political revolution. Many of Marx's followers however, were and are scholars. Therefore the transition from a social economic theory to a school of literary criticism was inevitable. Charles Bressler is faced with this seeming difficult task of defining Marxism as a literary school of thought. Bressler attempts to define and explain Marxism as a school of literary thought by examining past Marxists, the assumptions which one must adopt and the methodology (as he does with every chapter.) He succeeds in some places and fails in others. Bressler's definition of Marxism is as follows, "[the belief] that reality itself can be can be defined and understood, society shapes our consciousness, social and economic conditions directly influence how and what we believe and value, and Marxism details a plan for changing the world from a place of bigotry, hatred and conflict due to class struggle to a classless society where wealth, opportunity, and education are accessible for all people". Bressler does a decent job here. He defines Marxism as it was originally intended: an economic and social view of culture and its influences. He provides a clear, simple definition of Marxism which is easily understandable. After this however, Bressler's chapter begins to fall apart. He succeeds in giving a brief description of Marxist events and theorists, but fails in his assumptions and methodology.

Effects of youth indiscipline Essay

The effects of indiscipline among the youth are manifold. Indiscipline is defined as a lack of discipline. Some of the effects of indiscipline among the youth include lack of respect for teachers, parents and other senior figures. It could be argued that the indiscipline of certain individuals has reduced the morality and ethics of many young people. The effect of the downfall in morals and ethics are caused, in part, by the education of the young people, in that teachers are no longer responsible for setting limits, merely for ensuring that certain targets are met. As discipline is no longer present, the lack of discipline does not present any sense of shame as the indiscipline is not tied to immorality anymore. The lack of guidance given to young people means that the conduct they show is not an important facet of their lives anymore. General consensus is that the values that have influenced morality are instilled inside the family, and that it is improved family values that will reverse the current trend. Most young people today believe in having things their own way. If they don’t get their own way then they often go off the rails. Parents seem more afraid of children and they do not seem to realise that by constantly giving in to their demands they are making them uncontrollable and undisciplined. Indiscipline is classed as a behavioral disorder and is the cause of mental, emotional, and in some cases, physical damage. Some would argue that parents, teachers and society should shoulder some of the blame for the indiscipline currently evident amongst today’s youth. Parents may be to blame as they give their children too much freedom, whereas teachers could be to blame for not focusing on things that the child is good at. Society is also to blame as the current education system does not prepare a child for employment. The curriculum is so varied that children are not gaining enough practical knowledge. BY: Ofondu Pearl

Monopolistic Competitive Market

Monopolistic Competitive Market Introduction The term market refers to the place where buyers and sellers meet to engage in transactions that entail the exchange of goods or the provision of services for a consideration. A market is not only characterized by a building where people carry out business transactions. This is because any place that people carry out commerce can be referred to as a market. A market is characterized by various mechanisms that facilitate trade. These mechanisms usually pertain to the supply and demand of products and services (Bergin, 2005).From this explanation it should be clear that a market is comprised of three main elements. The sellers these are the people who bring the products or services to the market to be procured by the willing buyers. At this stage it is imperative to highlight that in most cases sellers are the produces however in other instances the sellers are not necessarily the producers instead they can be traders. The second element of the market is the buyers. Buyers are individual who are willing and able to acquire the products or services being offered at the prevailing market price.Buyers are of two types; there are those that buy the products or services for their own consumption and there are those that buy the products or services in order to resell them in different markets. The buyers who buy the products for their own consumption are referred to as consumers whereas buyers who buy the products or services in order to resell them in different market are commonly referred to as trades and they can also be called arbitragers (Nicholson & Snyder, 2008). The third element of the market is the products that are being traded.The term product can be used to refer to either goods or services that are being offered in exchange for a consideration. The term product can also be used to refer to commodities only. General Objectives One of the general objectives of this paper is to facilitate the readers of this docu ment to gain an understanding of how markets work and most importantly how a monopolistic competitive market works. This paper will achieve this through briefly discussing various types of markets and their characteristics.Another general objective of this paper is to compare and contrast the various characteristics of the different forms of market structures. This will serve to enable the readers to carry out a comparative analysis of the various forms of market structures thus they will be able to enhance their knowledge on market structures. This objective will be attained through the analysis of the factors, which are mainly in play for the existence of a particular form of market. The paper will also seek to analyze how the various factors in such markets interrelate in order to develop a market mechanism for that form of market structure.This is because all forms of markets structures have market mechanisms. These market mechanisms are usually as result of the interaction of v arious factors that are both internal and external to a particular market. Specific Objectives One of the specific objectives of this paper is to discuss the conceptual theory of a monopolistic competitive market. The discussion of the monopolistic competitive market entails analyzing the various factors that characterize this particular form of market structure. This is will be important form enhance the knowledge of the readers of this paper, on monopolistic competitive market structure.The discussion of the conceptual theory will also enable the readers to have a good basis for analyzing and responding to questions that relate to monopolistic competitive market structure. Another objective is to discuss the characteristics of a monopolistic competitive market. The discussion of the characteristics of a monopolistic competitive market structure is important because it will serve to explain how the various factors involved in this type of market structure interrelate in order to th is unique type of market.The discussion of the characteristic of a monopolistic competitive market will serve to enhance the understanding of the readers of how companies that operate in such a market carry out their operations. The discussion of these characteristics will serve to inform the readers the various factors that companies operating in this type of market put into consideration during decision-making. This discussion will also enable the readers to be able to identify a monopolistic competitive market in a real business situation.This paper also aims at establishing how market equilibrium is achieved both in the long – run and in the short run. This is mainly because in a monopolistic competitive market structure, market equilibrium is achieved differently both in the short – run and in the long – run. This analysis is imperative mainly because this knowledge enables the management to have a good basis for decision-making. The analysis will provide f actors that the management should put into consideration whenever they are making decisions concerning either the short term or the long – term future of a company.The illustration of how market equilibriums are achieved in the short run or in the long run will enable the readers to gain understanding of how the various factors in this market structure relate in the determination of the equilibrium market prices. It will also enable to understand how companies that operate in a monopolistic competitive market adapt themselves in order to be able to operate in this particular form of market at minimal costs and manage to obtain maximum profits. This paper will also provide a practical example of a monopolistic competitive market.In this example, the paper will seek to illustrate how the conceptual theory is exhibited in this form of market structure. This paper will utilize this example in order to enhance the knowledge of the reader on how market equilibrium is attained both in the long – run and in the short – run. This example will illustrate how the various factors are displayed in a real market situation, also this paper will utilize the example to look at the type of decisions that are made by mangers of companies that operate in a monopolistic competitive markets structure. Conceptual TheoryThere are four forms of market structure namely, monopoly, perfect competition, monopolistic competition and oligopoly. These forms of market structures are characterized by different market conditions. Markets are mainly classified according to the number of firms in the industry or the form of products sold in them. The number of firms operating in a particular market determines the level of competition in that market. Product markets are mainly categorized according to the number of firms in the industry and the degree of competition that is prevalent in a particular industry.At this stage it is also important to highlight that equilibrium pric es in these markets are subject to the forces of supply and demand. The forces of supply and demand are known as the price mechanism. An individual firm on itself cannot influence the price of a commodity and can therefore only take the price prevailing in the market. Due to this condition a firm is therefore said to be a price taker (Nicholson & Snyder, 2008). The movement along a demand curve is caused by changes in price of a commodity.An increase in price results in a decrease in quantity demanded hence a movement along the demand curve to the left. A shift in the demand curve is caused by changes in factors other than the price of the commodity in question. Different quantities are therefore demanded at the original price. A shift in the demand curve outwards to the right indicates that more quantities are demanded at the original price whereas a shift inwards to the left indicates that fewer quantities are demanded at the original price (Dwivedi, 2006).Movement in the supply c urve is similar to movement in the demand curve. A shift in the supply curve refers to a relocation of the supply curve either outwards to the right or inwards to the left due to change in the factors that affect supply other than price. This means that at each price, a different quantity will be supplied that was previously supplied. Equilibrium price refers to the price, where the quantity demanded equals that supplied. It is the price at which the amount the customers are able and willing to buy is equal to the quantity producers willing and able to supply.The equilibrium point, refers to a point at which the demand and the supply curve intersect. Any price above the equilibrium price leads to excess supply, whereas any price below the equilibrium price leads to excess demand. Excess demand or supply causes disequilibrium in the market. Due to the excess demand for a particular commodity in the market, a shortage is created. This shortage causes the consumers to compete for the l imited commodity in the market thus making the price of that commodity go up. As he price continues to rise, suppliers put more of the commodity into the market (Mandal, 2007). On the other hand, the high price also discourages some consumers from buying the commodity. This scenario of increased supply and reducing demand continues until the equilibrium price and quantity are set. When there is excess supply of a commodity in the market the prices begins to fall. As the price falls more consumers purchase the commodity. The suppliers also reduce the amount of the commodity they are releasing into the market due to the falling prices.This scenario of falling supply and increasing demand continues until the equilibrium price and quantity are set. It is also important to highlight that a general assumption in the study of this subject is that firms aim at attaining maximum profits using minimal costs possible. This means during decision making the managers of the firm will always aim a t using the least resources possible and utilise them efficiently in order to attain the maximum achievable profits possible. The level of output that will bring about maximum profit in a firm depends on the costs incurred and the revenues earned.Revenues refers to incomes obtained by a firm from the sale of its outputs and they may be categorized into three namely, total revenue, average revenue and marginal revenue. Total revenue refers to the total income earned by a firm from the sale of its output. Total revenue is obtained through multiplying the total output sold by the price. Average revenue refers to income per unit of output. Average revenue can be obtained by dividing the total revenue obtained by the number of units of output. It is important to note that the average revenue is the same as the price of the commodity (Dwivedi, 2006).This implies that the average revenue curve, which relates average revenues to output, is the same as the demand curve, which relates prices to output. Marginal revenue refers to the addition to the total revenue arising from the sale of an additional unit of output. Marginal revenue can also be obtained by subtracting the previous total revenue from the current one and can be seen to be equal to the price and average revenue. Characteristics of a monopolistic competitive market This is a market structure that combines aspects of perfect competition and those of a monopoly.There are many sellers and many buyers just like in perfect competition. The commodities dealt with are similar but each firm tends to differentiate its products from those of its competitors through acts such as branding, packing, wrapping and coloring. A monopolistic competitive market structure is a combination of the features that will be discussed in the succeeding paragraphs. In a monopolistic competitive market there exist many buyers and sellers. This comes in adequately because there is no single firm that can influence the prices of commoditi es or services in the market.If a business sells its goods or services above the market price then consumers can buy their goods from other businessmen. If a company sells its products at a lower price then chances of making a loss is very high (Mandal, 2007). Though a business may increase its prices in a perfect competition, the action may be risky since customers will move to another business. This is not the case with a monopolistic business, though a firm may lose some of the customers, some will remain due to the kind of relationship they have with the seller or even the quality of the given products.All the aforementioned factors are due to the fact that there is a large number of buyers and customers that act independently. In this form of market structure it is assumed that the sellers and the buyers of commodities are well informed about the market. That is they know the prices, quality of products and all the factors affecting the market. In this market the products are d ifferentiated. The products from different producers either vary in quality or the product is a group of commodities which are close substitutes of each other (Mandal, 2007).For instance, in the toothpaste industry there are different brands such as Colgate, Close– up and Aquafresh. This differentiation of products from different firms enables each firm to enjoy a certain degree of monopoly power. A monopolistic competitive market is characterized by freedom of entry and exit. This means there are no barriers to a business entering or living the market. This means that new firms wishing to supply the same commodity are free to do so (Bergin, 2005). Similarly, existing firms wishing to leave the market are free to do so.How to determine equilibrium in the short – run and long – run on Monopolistic Competitive Market Structure Price and output determination under monopolistic competition Due to product differentiation, a firm under monopolistic competition is able to exercise some influence on the price of the product. This means that a firm can raise prices yet some customers will still buy at these high prices (Dwivedi, 2006). However, many customers will switch to rivals’ products. On the other hand, if the firm lowers the price, it would attract some buyers from the rival firms, thereby increasing its product’s demand.A monopolistically competitive market has a demand curve that slopes downward from left to right. In a monopolistic competitive market the demand curve is fairly elastic. This means that a small change in price will bring about more than proportionate changes in quantities demanded. This is because there are many substitutes in the market. The demand curve is more elastic than the one faced by a monopolist but less elastic than a perfectly competitive market whose demand is perfectly elastic (Jehle & Reny, 2011). The relationship between average revenue and marginal revenue is similar to that of a monopolist.F or average revenue to be increasing as more units of output are sold, the marginal revenue must be lower than the average revenue. Short – run equilibrium output under monopolistic competition A firm under monopolistic competition will be at equilibrium at an output when profits are maximized. This is the position when marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. This is at price P1 and quantity Qe. However, there still excess demand and the firm can maximize its profits by changing price Pe. The firm will therefore produce quantity Qe and sell at price Pe (Jehle & Reny, 2011).Qe represents equilibrium output and P1 represents equilibrium price. The price at which the equilibrium output can be sold is determined by the demand Curve (Average Revenue) and its price. Profits are maximized at a level of output between O (zero) and the equilibrium quantity demanded. Long – run equilibrium output under monopolistic competition A firm under monopolistic competition can make su pernormal profits in the short – run. Since there is free entry of new firm into the market, the supernormal profits will attract the new firms with the effect that demand for the old firm’s customers will be taken by new firms.The demand curve for the old firm therefore shifts right to left (Mandal, 2007). A lower quantity is demanded at each price. Firms are likely to increase expenditure on product promotion due to increased competition, which in turn would cause the average total cost curve to shift upwards. New firms will continue to enter the market as long as the existing equilibrium is achieved and all firms would be earning normal profits. The equilibrium point is where the average revenue is equal to the average cost. This point is achieved in the long run when the average revenue curve is a tangent to the average cost curve.The firm will be at equilibrium when it produces output at the equilibrium quantity demanded (Bergin, 2005). This is where the marginal revenues equal the marginal cost because the firm is in the business of profit maximization. At the point of equilibrium, the average cost is equal to the average revenue. This is so because competitive pressure means that a firm can neither make a loss nor earn supernormal profits. At this point of equilibrium the firm is making normal profits only. Conclusion An example of a monopolistic competitive market is the toothpaste market.The toothpaste market is characterized by firms that offers products that are similar but they are highly differentiated. Consumers of Colgate toothpaste believe that Colgate is the number one brand of toothpaste that ensures strong teeth. As a result of this the consumers are normally willing to buy toothpaste regardless of the price. Consumers of Aquafresh toothpaste believe that Aquafresh is the number one brand that ensures healthy germs and fresh breathe. As a result of this customers are willing to always procure the Aquafresh toothpaste regardless of the price.Consumers of the two products believe the products are different and this is because of the way the manufacturers have positioned the brands. REFERENCES Bergin, J. (2005). Microeconomic Theory: A concise Course. New York: Oxford University Press. Dwivedi, D. N. (2006). Microeconomics: Theory & Applications. New Delhi: Dorling kindersley. Jehle, G. A. , & Reny, P. J. (2011). Advanced Microeconomic Theory. New York: Pretence Hall. Mandal, R. K. (2007). Microeconomic Theory. New Delhi: Atlantic Publisher. Nicholson, W. , & Snyder, C. (2008). Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extension. New York: Cengage Learning.

Santa Croce Essay Example

Santa Croce Essay Example Santa Croce Essay Santa Croce Essay The Santa Croce is the principal Franciscan church in Florence, Italy, and a minor basilica of the Roman Catholic Church. It is situated on the Piazza di Santa Croce, about 800 metres south east of the Duomo. It is one of the most popular tourist spots in Italy. In A Room with a View, an important scene takes place in this place. In Chapter 2: In Santa Croce with No Baedeker, we find that the tourists from England go on a visit to this place. The writer gives a picturesque description of the place.Moreover, here Lucy abandoned by her cousin happens to meet Emerson, who asks her to befriend his George. Lucy gets upset by this unexpected approach. Here Mr. Emerson also expresses sympathy for Lucy. But she becomes cold, and she informs him that she has no need for his pity. This is one of the scenes where Lucy comes to know the outer world. Piazza Signoria Piazza Signoria is an L-shaped square in front of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, Italy. It was named after the Palazzo della Signo ria, also called Palazzo Vecchio.It is the focal point of the origin and of the history of the Florentine Republic and still maintains its reputation as the political hub of the city. In the novel A Room with a View, Lucy has a horrible experience here in Piazza Signoria. In chapter-4 of the book, Lucy goes out longing for adventure, hoping for something great. She buys some photographs of great artworks at a junk shop, but remains unsatisfied. She wanders into the Piazza Signoria. Nearby, she sees two Italians arguing.One of them is struck lightly on the chest; he wanders toward Lucy, trying to say something, and blood trickles from his lips. The light strike was actually a stabbing. A crowd surrounds them and carries the man away. She sees George Emerson, and then the world seems to fall on top of Lucy; suddenly, she is with George Emerson, sitting on some steps some distance away. She fainted, and George has carried her here. Here for the first time the couple come closer to one another that has some significant consequence in the long run.

Obama and Romneys plans for higher education

Obama and Romneys plans for higher education Summary on President Obama and Romneys plans for higher education President Obama has proposed to spend more on higher education within the next 4 years. He focuses to increase the spending by 2.5% above the current budget. This raises the prospected education spending by 69.8 million dollars. This is a great offer according to the current economic status of the United States.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Obama and Romneys plans for higher education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Obama’s focus is based on establishing new financial incentives that would help in supporting higher education institutions. In addition, he is also asking for billions of dollars to support some of colleges and universities facing financial instability. As a democrat, he would like to boost both the private and public sectors of economy to enhance financial provisions for higher education. On the other hand, Romney plans to redu ce higher education spending rate by applying various policies within the learning institutions. Some of these policies are based on the financial expenditure of the learning institutions. According to Romney, limiting the federal dollar cost will minimize the budgetary costs of various institutions. Romney’s plans are based on limiting public expenditures while boosting the private sector. He also suggests that the banking policy should be changed so as to allow room for student lending. This can help in boosting institutions of higher learning. Personal Opinion on the matter Education is a critical provision for the growth of any country. The two aspirants have considerable plans for higher education systems in the United States despite their political differences. Obama has stronger plans compared to those of Romney. Romney plans to reduce the cost of a dollar in the federal government while boosting the private sectors of the government. This can be detrimental to the hig her educational sector. This can negatively affect the economic status of the United States. On the other hand, Obama plans to balance costs both from the private and public sectors of the government. This will enhance financial stability for higher education advancements. One of the Romney’s plans seems to favor the higher education sector in the U.S. For instance, students will be offered bank loans to sort out their educational problems. This will create conducive environment for learning since all the learning materials will be availed to students.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Concurrently, Obama’s plans for the next four years will really boost institutions of higher education. Fundamentally, they will not only enjoy the increase in spending but also low cost of learning materials and activities. This is a considerable provision when scrutinized critic ally in the realms of education. It is important to spend wisely in the education sector. This can be enhanced by setting priorities right. Research in any learning institution needs a lot of capital and once this is subsidized within the next four years, the quality of education will have been enhanced leading to production of skilled individuals in the society. Such people can perform their task to perfection. Obama is also determined in ensuring that job opportunities are created to intelligent students after completing their higher education. This will help in curbing/reducing the crime rate in the United States. According to him, crimes are committed by idlers who are frustrated in life after completing their studies and cannot find jobs. Actually, this is the only way of making a living. The plans presented by President Obama are viable since they will advance higher education institutions within the next four years.

Fluid ingestion can we overhydrate How does hypokalemia fit into this Essay

Fluid ingestion can we overhydrate How does hypokalemia fit into this - Essay Example Most of the time, runners in marathon as they engage on the activity induce or drink fluids in excess to the idea that this will help them stay longer. Not also marathon runners do, but also those who are engaging in tough physical activities like sports who always have liters of water on their side to quench their thirst. Marathon runners should be informed that drinking too much water is not advisable as the engage in that sweat pouring activity. Too much fluid may dilute body salts that will result to the blood to have more water and too little sodium. This situation will cause brain cells to get or absorb more water. It will later swell and push against the skull (De Noon, D., 2003). The human brain would more likely be affected to over-hydration, since this is the organ of the body that is most susceptible to it. During the initial stage of water intoxication or over-hydration, change of behavior can be observed. A person who suffers the effect of over-hydration may suffer drows iness, inattentiveness, nausea and vomiting, weakness and rapid breathing. Adrogue H.J., Madias N.E., (1581-1589), English doctors revealed the dangers of over-hydration. They said, These words from experts support the former idea of the danger that over-hydration can do to humans, and how much we should avoid it. It is not only the early symptoms wherein we should be worry at, but even to the greatest risk that it could give, which is death. Dr. Arthur Siegel, an expert from Mc Lean Hospital in Belmont, MA (Harvard affiliated hospital) declared; April 2006, in Boston Marathon, Cynthia Lucero, 28 years old, died because of over-hydration effects in a 22-mile mark marathon. Another marathon runner, KC Lucero also suffered water intoxication, but fortunately survived. According to her, prior the race she increased her salt intake about a week

Why societies collapse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Why societies collapse - Essay Example They have happened thousands of years ago and will continue to happen as new empires and societies rise and fall. There are different and numerous reasons for the demise and the fall of societies and for most of these societies and civilizations, the causes are the same and similar. The usual aspects that cause the collapse and the decline of a certain civilization or empire are economic, environmental, political, social and cultural factors. Some causes take effect immediately and others are gradual. Some reasons and factors for the collapse of a society are certain and others, a mystery. Throughout world history, there are several notable and famous empires and kingdoms that have collapsed after several years of their rise and development politically, economically and socially. The Han Dynasty in China was one of the most influential and the most powerful empires in ancient China. Today, the majority of an ethnic group of people in China are called â€Å"the people of the Han.â₠¬  Even though they were greatly powerful and was an immense empire, they collapsed after four hundred years of reign and rule. There were several reasons why this great and grand empire and dynasty declined and eventually collapsed and fell. One of the main reasons for their ruin was the wars and the invasion and attacks by different groups that resulted in the weakening of the empire’s economy. ... ty, in an attempt to make reforms that would effectively reinstate and bring back the success, prosperity and the glory of the empire, made far-reaching modifications and alterations. However, natural disasters struck and resulted in a scarcity of food supply. Rebellions by peasants sprung up and Wang Mang died soon after. Although the Han dynasty was able to recover from the great downfall of the economy, it never regained back its great success and affluence and in 220 AD, formerly collapsed and came to an end. After hundreds of years on the other side of the world, the Roman Empire also experienced its rise and fall. Just like the Han Dynasty, it was one of the greatest empires in history and similarly, there were also a number of different grounds and causes of its fall. One of the said key reasons was the split of the Roman Empire between the West and the East (also known as the Byzantium Empire.) There were also several civil wars that occurred. Some emperors such as Commodus g ave in to immorality and practiced violence, which caused his assassination and this resulted in the beginning of the collapse of the empire. The Roman people ultimately lost their power as barbarian ns in the North frequently invaded and attacked. The Roman army started to become disloyal to the empire. The infrastructures such as bridges and pathways were not maintained, causing trade and communication to stop. Christians were heavily persecuted and people gathered in crowds and cheered on as people died violent deaths. The falling economy caused food supply to run out. With all these troubles and problems, the Roman Empire in time collapsed and fell. The causes and reasons for the fall of both the Han Dynasty in the East and the Roman Empire in Europe ere certain. However, it is not

Role of Farmers Markets in the Mainstream Food System Research Paper

Role of Farmers Markets in the Mainstream Food System - Research Paper Example Farmers markets in Ontario nowadays have become one of the hottest shopping spots where consumers drop in to buy fresh vegetables and fruits directly from the farmers. It has been revealed that â€Å"In Ontario.... sales at Farmers Markets total almost $600 million, leading to an economic impact of an astounding $1.8 billion† (Farmersmarketsontario). Some other studies have shown that â€Å" 60 to 70 percent of market-goers visit neighboring businesses on their way to and from the market† thereby helping other local businesses also to flourish (Farmersmarketsontario). Some farmers markets have also been contributing their profits to social causes in the form of donations to the local senior centers, libraries, and schools, thereby linking the local economy with social upliftment (Hinsley and Pascoe, 1). In addition, a review of the materials available regarding the farmers market has indicated that the 100-mile diet concept is promptly fulfilled by this initiative. This concept has a meaning that, you â€Å"try eating only from producers within 100 miles of your home† (Winter, 88). This decision is taken in order to contribute to the sustainability of local agriculture and local livelihood as well as to evolve a healthy eating habit in which maximum fresh food is consumed. The farmer's markets have also been lauded as environmentally friendly because, â€Å"locally produced food has not traveled hundreds of miles to reach them (the consumers), increasing the fossil fuel emissions that lead to global climate change† (Hinsley and Pascoe, 2).  Ã‚  

The Doctrine of Precedent can be considered both a Blessing and a Essay

The Doctrine of Precedent can be considered both a Blessing and a Curse - Essay Example At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the concept of common law began to emerge. An internal system of courts was set up, with each community sharing the same laws. Judges traveled to the communities and followed the same rules, therefore making the laws enforced throughout common to all. To provide consistency between the communities, if a judge was making a decision about a case, and there was a case of the same nature that had been decided by a judge before it, they would be resolved in the same way, with the same ruling. That meant that the first judge to make a ruling on a particular case had made a law that judges in following cases (which were of the same nature) were obliged to follow. This still applies within the Australian legal system today. Courts are bound (within prescribed limits) by prior decisions of superior courts within the same State or Federal hierarchy. This is collectively known as the 'Doctrine of Precedent'. Judicial law is a large part of the Doctrine of Precedent. It is named judicial law because it is a law made by judges, which is to be followed by judges in subsequent cases. Whether or not a case is binding, is determined by two things; whether the preceding decision comes from a judge that is in an equal or higher rank than the judge deciding the case (this given the Latin term stare decisis, which means 'stand by decided'), and whether the relevant legal principles of the preceding case are the same or similar to the case in question. When dealing with precedent, judges and lawyers have to be able to break previous judicial decisions into two parts; the relevant legal principles that are binding, and the rest that is not binding. The part that is binding is given the Latin term ratio decidendi, which means 'reason for deciding' and the part of a judges decision that is not binding is given the Latin term the obiter dicta, which means 'incidental things said' and only has an incidental bearing on the case. The Doctrine of Precedent gives judges the power both to reuse past decisions and rephrase past decisions. As a consequence of these powers, new laws can be made. An example of a judicial precedent is the case Donoghue v Stevenson (1932). (Tufal, 1996) In which a decomposing snail was found in the bottom of a ginger beer bottle. The House of Lords found that a manufacturer owes a duty of care to the consumer to provide products that are safe. This case set a huge precedent for common law that is still relevant today, and the context of the word 'product' has been used not only in food products but also in cases including motorcycles and underwear. There have always been, and still, are many critics who do not believe that judges should have the power to make laws. There are many convincing arguments both for and against the use of the Doctrine of Precedent in Australia.

Travel and Tourism Industry of London Assignment

Travel and Tourism Industry of London - Assignment Example Chapter 3 Methodology 25 3.1 Introductions 25 3.2 Quantitative research 26 3.3 Qualitative research 27 3.4 Analysis 28 3.5 London: A Haven for Connoisseur 30 Chapter 4 Questionnaire (Finding and Analysis) 31 4.1 Introductions 31 4.2 Front Office Manager 31 4.3 F&B Manager 32 4.4 Kitchen 32 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 33 Bibliography 34 Appendices 36 ALL THE TABLES AND FIGURES Tables and figures 1.0 Introduction The travel and tourism industry is among the oldest and largest industry in the world, and the industry has been growing significantly faster than most other industries. Globalisation has led to the increase in travel across the globe, and to meet additional demands for accommodation and food, hotels and motels have come up in a big way. The general economic vitality of a country is an important consideration because an indication of its economic condition will be reflected in such factors as consumer demand and prices. In scanning the economic environment, the following factors deserve consideration: 1. Gross National Product (GNP). This refers to the total market value of goods and services produced in a country per year and its growth rate. 2. Income distribution refers to the level of consumer's income and his/her buying power 3. Foreign exchange rates are an essential component of the traveller, as he/she will have to carry foreign exchange during travel between countries. 4. Monetary and fiscal policies and exchange controls must be considered, as there are countries that limit the amount of money that can be withdrawn from their country as well as impose large payments for international transactions, like joint ventures and entry into a... There are many business tactics that can be employed to bring about operational changes to manage talent effectively, such as identifying role models, eliminating biased policies and procedures, providing equal opportunities, training and development, and conducting workshops for employees to increase performance and production (David Pappie, p.103, 2006). The travel and tourism industry is among the oldest and largest industry in the world, and the industry has been growing significantly faster than most other industries. Globalisation has led to the increase in travel across the globe, and to meet additional demands for accommodation and food, hotels and motels have come up in a big way. The general economic vitality of a country is an important consideration because an indication of its economic condition will be reflected in such factors as consumer demand and prices. In scanning the economic environment, the following factors deserve consideration: 4. Monetary and fiscal policies and exchange controls must be considered, as there are countries that limit the amount of money that can be withdrawn from their country as well as impose large payments for international transactions, like joint ventures and entry into a country. 5.

Does the current system of funding higher education support student Literature review

Does the current system of funding higher education support student academic learning - Literature review Example The authors have not shown the evidence of Universities that are struggling with issues of funding or the ones trying to cut their costs because of poor funding. One may not believe in the results of the study because the authors do not prove some of their claims such as the real reasons affecting universities funding and the level of investments other governments put in their universities (Connaway & Powell 2010, pp. 63-65). This may help in understanding whether indeed UK underinvests in their higher learning institutions compared to other countries. The data source is very reliable because the study has been carried out by a professional organization, Russell Group that entails several higher learning institutions. The group also contains academic professionals such as Professor Michael Arthur who is the chairman of the group (Russell Group 2010, pp. 45-50). There are also financial reports that have been used in carrying out the study. The sources used in the study are also relevant and are very reliable. The data used in the study are up to date because none of them is more than ten years old. Russell Group 2010, Staying on top: The challenge of sustaining world-class higher education in the UK, PP. 1-52, retrieved

The Doctrine of Precedent can be considered both a Blessing and a Essay

The Doctrine of Precedent can be considered both a Blessing and a Curse - Essay Example At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the concept of common law began to emerge. An internal system of courts was set up, with each community sharing the same laws. Judges traveled to the communities and followed the same rules, therefore making the laws enforced throughout common to all. To provide consistency between the communities, if a judge was making a decision about a case, and there was a case of the same nature that had been decided by a judge before it, they would be resolved in the same way, with the same ruling. That meant that the first judge to make a ruling on a particular case had made a law that judges in following cases (which were of the same nature) were obliged to follow. This still applies within the Australian legal system today. Courts are bound (within prescribed limits) by prior decisions of superior courts within the same State or Federal hierarchy. This is collectively known as the 'Doctrine of Precedent'. Judicial law is a large part of the Doctrine of Precedent. It is named judicial law because it is a law made by judges, which is to be followed by judges in subsequent cases. Whether or not a case is binding, is determined by two things; whether the preceding decision comes from a judge that is in an equal or higher rank than the judge deciding the case (this given the Latin term stare decisis, which means 'stand by decided'), and whether the relevant legal principles of the preceding case are the same or similar to the case in question. When dealing with precedent, judges and lawyers have to be able to break previous judicial decisions into two parts; the relevant legal principles that are binding, and the rest that is not binding. The part that is binding is given the Latin term ratio decidendi, which means 'reason for deciding' and the part of a judges decision that is not binding is given the Latin term the obiter dicta, which means 'incidental things said' and only has an incidental bearing on the case. The Doctrine of Precedent gives judges the power both to reuse past decisions and rephrase past decisions. As a consequence of these powers, new laws can be made. An example of a judicial precedent is the case Donoghue v Stevenson (1932). (Tufal, 1996) In which a decomposing snail was found in the bottom of a ginger beer bottle. The House of Lords found that a manufacturer owes a duty of care to the consumer to provide products that are safe. This case set a huge precedent for common law that is still relevant today, and the context of the word 'product' has been used not only in food products but also in cases including motorcycles and underwear. There have always been, and still, are many critics who do not believe that judges should have the power to make laws. There are many convincing arguments both for and against the use of the Doctrine of Precedent in Australia.

Does the current system of funding higher education support student Literature review

Does the current system of funding higher education support student academic learning - Literature review Example The authors have not shown the evidence of Universities that are struggling with issues of funding or the ones trying to cut their costs because of poor funding. One may not believe in the results of the study because the authors do not prove some of their claims such as the real reasons affecting universities funding and the level of investments other governments put in their universities (Connaway & Powell 2010, pp. 63-65). This may help in understanding whether indeed UK underinvests in their higher learning institutions compared to other countries. The data source is very reliable because the study has been carried out by a professional organization, Russell Group that entails several higher learning institutions. The group also contains academic professionals such as Professor Michael Arthur who is the chairman of the group (Russell Group 2010, pp. 45-50). There are also financial reports that have been used in carrying out the study. The sources used in the study are also relevant and are very reliable. The data used in the study are up to date because none of them is more than ten years old. Russell Group 2010, Staying on top: The challenge of sustaining world-class higher education in the UK, PP. 1-52, retrieved

Cybercrime in Todays World Essay Example for Free

Cybercrime in Todays World Essay I have been asked to write a paper concerning cybercrime in the world today. I will go over what cybercrime is, how much it is affecting the United States, possible ways of enforcement and why or why not enforcement would be effective. What is a cybercrime, in your own words? Cybercrime is using computers or technology in order to steal information or to create fake identities over the World Wide Web. It is a growing problem in the world today, especially in countries like China, Japan and the United States where populations are high. Phone scams are another type of cybercrime as people will try to glean vital information from another by pretending to be a grandchild or a salesman. Cyberspace allows people to invade another person’s or company’s computer and download sensitive materials such as social security numbers, birth certificates and tax information. What is the extent of cybercrime in the United States? Computerescape. om says that â€Å"Cybercrime is widespread throughout the United States with 73% of American internet users being victims of cybercrime, either through viruses, online credit card or identity theft†*. With over 300 million Americans in the US, that comes out to 219 million Americans that have been or are currently victims of a cybercriminal. Most of the victims of identity theft are infants and the elderly. My own infant cousin had his social security number stolen shortly after his death. It took several months to recover it. How do you think we should control / enforce cybercrime? I personally believe that the only way to control cybercrime is to attach a major virus to sensitive files, so that when an unauthorized person tries to access it, it attaches itself to that person’s computer, downloads any information regarding the owner of the computer, sends that information to the authorities, and finally scrambles all data on the computer. The authorities will then be able to make an arrest and unscramble the computer so that evidence can be obtained. The offender should then have an appendage cut from their body on national television, so that others thinking of committing the same crime will hopefully be deterred. If the person should offend again, then they should be stoned until dead by the people that they have stolen from. Do you think enforcement can be effective? Why or why not? I don’t think that any type of enforcement would be effective as tracking anything in cyberspace is time consuming and if the person was determined enough, they would find a way around the enforcement. Security cameras are an excellent point. You can have the main points of a store being watched by cameras, but the only places you have issues with theft is in the cameras blind spots. A security system will alert you if someone comes in through a door or window, but isn’t programmed to respond if a person decides to cut a hole in the wall or ceiling and enter the premises without ever tripping the system. If someone wanted to commit a robbery and they knew that a police patrol car passed by every 45 minutes, they would wait until 10 minutes after the patrol car had passed and then rob the business, knowing that it would be at least another 10 minutes before police could respond. Criminals will always find a way to circumvent the enforcers of the law.

Social Workers Knowledge Of The Law Social Work Essay

Social Workers Knowledge Of The Law Social Work Essay I want to be a social worker, not a lawyer Robert Johns p.1 The aim of this assignment is to consider the importance of law for social workers and discuss the professional skills and values which underpin social work practice in England and Wales today. I will firstly look at how law frames social work practiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The relationship between the law and social work practice is complex. Although an in-depth understanding of how the law affects every day social work practice is essential, it also involves much more than just learning the legal rules. Constant reflection and critical analysis of your own values and practice of social work are required to be an effective practitioner (block 1 p130). However, Jeremy Roche argues that although the law provides a framework it cannot tell social workers what to do in every circumstance. The law cannot always resolve the dilemmas and tensions that face social workers everyday. Above all, the law cannot substitute for sound professional practice. (Robert Johns p.7) How the law is made The Law provides a framework for practice which grants the social worker with powers to take appropriate action. A starting point for understanding the legal framework is Statute law which is one of the main sources of law and is contained in an Act of Parliament. The Children Act 1989 is an example of statute law. The language of statutes can sometimes appear confusing for example the meaning of significant harm is not described in detail in the Children Act 1989 and can therefore be open to interpretation. A social worker will therefore have to provide evidence that the child is likely to suffer from significant harm and such decisions will be made jointly with legal advisers and managers (block 1 p.51) Case law is the second source of law which is developed by the courts from judgments made on cases brought before them (block 1 p.51). An example of case law that has an impact on society is the case of Diane Pretty who had a terminal illness causing a physical disability and she wished to have the right to choose when to die with the help of her husband. Dianes argument was that the right to life contained within Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) also implied a right to die (block 1 p.52). However, her application was rejected by the court who stated that Article 2 was not concerned with the quality of life. (block 1 p.52. Although the language of statutes can be difficult to understand, there are two words which will help social workers to interpret statutes and they are duties and power. Legislation provides social workers with certain powers as well as duties that social workers are legally bound to fulfil. An example of this is shown in the case study of Masie when her need for a service requires as assessment as decisions will be influenced by not only the social workers commitment to values and best practice but by the legal duties and powers. However, it can be frustrating when it is clear that a service is needed for a service user but there is insufficient money to provide that particular resource. A further example of the importance for social workers to have a thorough knowledge of the law in order that they can make decisions on appropriate legislation is shown in the case study of the Clarke family (p 82 of block 1 book) where the social worker attends the family home on an arranged visit and finds Emily (mother) under the influence of alcohol while the children were playing with cutlery in the kitchen. This is clearly an issue of child protection as the children are likely to suffer significant harm if they remain in the care of their mother. It therefore makes it a duty for the local authority to investigate and provide services as well as having the power to protect the children. How the law underpins social work practice: The law which underpins social work practice was radically redrawn in the 1980s following a series of scandals for example the events in Cleveland where social workers were accused of an over-readiness of taking children into care and the fact that the parents felt totally undermined and were not afforded proper rights to present their views. Interestingly the Cleveland Report also acknowledged the dilemma of child protection work namely that social workers are damned if they do, and damned if they dont (Robert Johns p.10) As a consequence of the events in Cleveland, many key principles such as the accountability of social workers to the law are now enshrined in the Children Act 1989, and according to Robert Johns, social workers welcomed the clarity this would have (word better) Values Principles Throughout my reading and my experience as a social work student I have learnt that before we can even think about working anti-oppressively within the law we need to look at our own experiences. Everyone has values and principles which shape our behaviour and perceptions of the world and it therefore important that social workers reflect on their values as their decisions will have a direct affect on the services they provide when practicing. (p126 block 1) Although social work values underpin decision making when working with service users, there are also values embedded in legislation which support social work values. However, there maybe areas of conflict or tension between legal values and social work values, particularly when a service user is deemed to be entitled to certain community services look at page 129 and expandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. There are also areas of the law that social workers may find difficult to address, for example, the Diane Petty case which I discussed earlier, where a commitment to social work values could mean respecting Dianes wishes. In order to demonstrate my own professional development as a social work student, I will briefly look at how the legislation underpins the assessment of children in need and discuss the importance social work values while completing an assessment. A child in need assessment should provide a clear understanding of the childs needs and is based on the provision of the Children Act 1989 and 2004, the principle that underpins the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, et al 2000), Working Together (Department of Health, 1991), and Every Child Matters which provides the legislative foundation on which policy and guidance has been built to inform social work practice in assessment. The social workers knowledge of the law and service provisions can be critical in empowering service users (Block 1 p20). It is essential for the social worker to work in a way that is both anti-oppressive and which recognises cultural perspectives. Anti-oppressive practice means recognising power imbalances and working towards the promotion of change to redress the balance of power. (Dalrymple and Burke 2003, p.15). Social workers have to make decisions in their everyday practice based on their own values and good practice is about involving service users through all stages of the assessment, inviting them to meetings, informing them of their rights and options as well as working in a way that is accountable (Thompson 2006). This would also support social work value D Value, recognise and respect the diversity, expertise and experience of individuals, families, carers, groups and communities (GSCC, 2002). It was interesting to note that Jane Aldgate (in Law and Social work book) looks at both the strengths and weaknesses of the assessment framework and although acknowledges that the shared language between professionals is undoubtedly a strength, Calder and Hackett, 2003 (in law in social work) criticise that the omission of risk as a separate category can lead to professionals underestimating risks when completing an assessment. Conclusion The law provides a framework to guide and assist social workers in making crucial decisions and preventing anti-discriminatory practice as well as providing a framework of legal rights for service users. Principles of social justice and human rights are fundamental to social work and without an in-depth understanding of the law and how it affects social work practice, it would be impossible to practice effectively. Throughout my experience as a social work student together with my research and reading for this assignment it has become clear that in order to comply with the General Social Care Council Codes of Practice (2002) social workers must view the law as an integral part of their role.

Writing to About My English Classes Essay -- Writing About Writing

I am writing to you to tell you more about the English class I am taking at State University. You know how I always have troubles in English essays? Well, today I am delighted to tell you that my writing has improved significantly after taking the English 101 class conducted by Professor Rob Geis. I enjoyed this class very much and I would like to share with the both of you how I have learnt to use writing and reading for inquiry, thinking, and communicating in English. The ten weeks of English class has been interesting and fruitful, I have learnt a lot of writing and reading skills that have indeed helped me in improving my English. For our Project One, we were required to write about an experience of how we successfully persuaded another person. Before I started writing, my teacher, Professor Geis taught the class how to write rhetorical compositions, she gave us many articles that are of good examples. We were taught in class the rhetorical strategies for persuasive compositions- the ethos, pathos and logos. I learnt that ethos means the characters in the composition, pathos means the emotions expressed by the composition and lastly logos means logic of the composition. In addition, Professor Geis discussed with us the words that people sometimes misused, for example some people would confuse the word advice and advise. In particular, I have learnt that in order to write a good essay on persuasion, I have to include the process of persuasi on in the essay in order for the audience to understand. Moreover, professor has kindly shared with us a few model essays from other students. In my Project One essay, I wrote about the process of how I successfully persuaded mum to allow me to change my major and also to study... ...ave learnt to use exploratory writing to present my research findings and rhetorical analysis to explain my research question and purpose. Overall, I have learnt to become a better research paper writer through Project Two. The ten weeks of English 101 classes have been rewarding for me, I am now better at communicating with my audiences in writing and using writings and readings to support my thoughts and ideas. Looking back at my two projects, I think I have done well in constructing my ideas and organizing the ideas into the essays. Areas I need to improve on are sentence structures and creative writing skills, which are things I definitely hope to be able to learn in ENGL 102. That is all for what I am going to write today. Hope you are happy to hear about my improvements in English. Write me back when you are free. Hope to talk to you again soon.

Juliet’s Transformation in Romeo and Juliet Essay -- Free Romeo and Ju

From â€Å"the fatal loins† (Prologue.5) of Lord and Lady Capulet, protagonist Juliet is born in Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet. Early on in the play Juliet is portrayed as a very dutiful daughter to her family. After her encounter with Romeo however, she begins a rapid transformation from a naive young girl into a woman. By the end of the play Juliet’s transformation evolves her from a dutiful daughter, into a faithful wife that is willing to desert her family in the name of love. The audience is first introduced to Juliet in the exposition of the play. Juliet attracts the attention the Count Paris and her father (Lord Capulet) wisely says that Juliet â€Å"is yet a stranger in the world† (Act I.2.8) and should be allowed â€Å"two more summers† (Act I.2.10) to grow until she is ready for marriage. This implies that Juliet is young and has not yet matured to level where she is eligible to be married. Lord Capulet’s love for his daughter leads him to protect her from the prospective marriage until she is â€Å"ripe to be a bride† (Act I.2.11). The audience’s first impression of Juliet however, is through her interaction with her mother (Lady Capulet) and the Nurse. From the Nurse’s remarks, the audience learns that Juliet is thirteen and â€Å"Come Lammas-eve at night shall [Juliet turn] fourteen† (Act I.3.18-9). As Juliet enters the presence of her mother and the Nurse, Shakespeare portrays Juliet as a very faithful daughter. When summoned by the Nurse, Juliet comes promptly then responds politely to her mother â€Å"Madam, I am here, what is your will?† (Act I.3.7). When Juliet refers to her mother as ‘madam† (Act I.3.7), the audience also gets the impression of Juliet being compliant to her elder’s wishes. This can be observed when her mothe... ... Juliet bringing news for Juliet to â€Å"hie you hence to Frair Laurences’ cell; there stays a husband [Romeo] to make you a wife† (Act II.5.73-74), Juliet is ecstatic. This portrays Juliet as being disobedient because while she accepted Romeo’s proposal, her family has already arranged a marriage between Juliet and Paris. Juliet’s disobedience continues until her death in scene five when Romeo’s dagger finds â€Å"thy sheath† (Act V.3.170) in Juliet’s body. The significance of Juliet’s change in character is to show her accelerated transformation from a young girl into a mature woman. In the beginning of the play Juliet is unable to make her own decisions. However after her meeting with Romeo, Juliet becomes more assertive and defends her love for Romeo. In conclusion, individuals cannot be forced to love; love is nurtured and nourished but also is always put to test.

Modern Family Essay

In September 2009, America was introduced to Modern Family, the new award-winning show. The show centers around three families, all of which interact with each other. Not only does Modern Family deal with the traditional family, but also introduces a homosexual couple, and a mixed marriage. Given that these families are interrelated, Modern Family can reasonably be described as â€Å"modern.† The combination of traditional and new elements grows from the blended dialog, which the producer of this show tries to communicate. These elements lay only on the surface, and deeper looks within each family structure prove that the show’s title is misleading. New family visions are never fully embraced, but instead altered to fit into a common family thought. In contrast to its title, Modern Family promotes traditional gender roles and stereotypes of women, which result in the portrayal of an inaccurate image of the female and weakens the stance of women in todays U.S. society. Even though Modern Family tries to communicate an new idea of family, the show’s trust on male structures has created plotlines modeling traditional thoughts within each family. With Mitchell Pritchett and Cameron Tucker, the producers of Modern Family succeeded in creating a liberal homosexual couple characterized by their progressive denial of a traditional family structure. The intermarriage of Jay Pritchett and Gloria Delgado also deviates from the norm, not only by highlighting Gloria’s Latin American origin, but also by their visible age difference. With this interracial relationship, Modern Family follows the trend of recent television series such as Lost Grey’s Anatomy and Emergency Room to include mixed partnership in their story-lines. The significance of these examples is that the audience assumes that Modern Family promotes new families and dismisses the classic gender construction; however, it lacks resistance towards male family dominance, showing t he false approach this show tries to communicate Stability is constructed around the promotion of a male, and traditional formation of the dominant thought of the â€Å"The Standard North American Family (SNAF),† as argued by Dorothy E. Smith. In her article about â€Å"SNAF as an Ideological Code,† she states that the clear division of work sphere and domestic sphere between husband and wife characterizes the concept of a family. The men are  the families’ principal earners, making the women dependent on their husbands’ income. As seen in Modern Family neither Claire Dunphy nor Gloria Pritchett is responsible for contributing to her family’s income, which forces them to rely on their husbands’ earnings. The show’s reliance on the deeply fixed thought becomes even more evident by looking at Mitchell Pritchett and Cameron Tucker. Their progressive portrayal seems to make a classical gender distribution unlikely, but the episode â€Å"Mothers Day† reveals that Mitchell takes the role as mother, while Cameron functions as father. Modern Family focuses on female gender stereotypes to further promote a male-dominant family thought. The mass media’s tendency to resolve so cial change and reproduce â€Å"assumptions about women’s appropriate roles† creates inaccurate images of Gloria and Claire as modern women (Dow 19). The work â€Å"Constructing Gender Stereotypes Through Social Roles in Prime-Time Television† gives a definition of the construction of female identity and communication throughout television. It states â€Å"stereotypes offer overviews about people on the basis of their group membership† (Lauzen, Dozier, and Horan 201). While both women share the identity of motherhood, home life, and family-orientation, their individual characteristics differ. Gloria’s Latin American origin deviates from her white, American colleague. Gloria’s character symbolizes views many Americans have regarding Latin American women, such as being â€Å"‘passive, and dependent on men. ABC’s official description of Gloria states that Jay â€Å"married the much younger, much hotter, much more Colombian Gloria. Numerous episodes also make fun of her strong Latin American accent. The episode â€Å"The One That Got Away â€Å"features Jay’s birthday and instead of his wish to get a â€Å"saxophone,† Gloria gets him a â€Å"sexy phone,† a phone in the shape of a mouth. Additionally, little is known about Gloria’s educational or professional background in Colombia. This results in the motives of her marriage to the much older Jay Pritchett are being questioned. Gloria is accused of being a gold digger for wanting to marry a rich white American, most likely to obtain the American Dream for her and her son Manny. Contrary to Gloria’s racist stereotypical description, Claire Dunphy represents the traditional stay-at-home-mother, who dedicates her life to the domestic land. Compared to Gloria’s glamorous looks, Claire is dressed more casually, indicating that her priorities lie within the family. Throughout the series the audiences discovers that she  once had a successful profession, which she quit for her family. This shows that despite her strong, controlling character, she is not an independent woman. Claire’s description of vacation as a â€Å"business trip† demonstrates that she takes her position as mother very seriously, even more than her previous occupation. Through the promotion of traditional family values and the stereotypical presentation of women in the U.S. show Modern Family, an inaccurate image of the reality and impact of women in U.S. society is created. Even though feminist scholar Andrea L. Press argues that it is not the role of television to immediately and accurately reflect social and political behavior in one’s society, she draws the attention to the representation of â€Å"contradictory notions about feminine gender identity and female roles† in mass media (Press, Women Watching Television Andrea Press has also studied the relationship between women and work on television, and has identified that the image of working women on U.S. sitcoms correlates with the rise of women’s participation in the U.S. labor force, resulting from the changing shape of the American family through rising divorce rates and increasing acceptance of alternative family forms (Press,†Gender And Family† 148). While currently 58.9 percent of married women with younger children, and 70.7 percent with children aged six to seventeen are employed, it is questionable why none of the women in Modern Family holds jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). Of course, the concept of women working is not the only controversial family-related issue that inconveniently left out of discussion in the television series. Even though the introduction of sensitive issues, such as sexuality and race, in present television shows (Press, â€Å"Gender And Family† 140) can be noticed, these narratives often minimize the real problems American women face today (Press, Women Watching Television27-28). This observation does not meet the ideals of Modern Family, whereas issues like race, sexuality, and career decisions might be shown, but not openly be discussed. The longstanding moral concept of the traditional family is promoted through the show and by constantly repeating gender roles; the audience assumes these structures as true and authentic (Lauzen, Dozier, and Horan 201-202). A critical review on Modern Family easily reveals old-fashioned values. Despite its success, this show is not as modern as it claims to be and could  easily have been aired in the 1980s, a television era that was also characterized by a return to traditional family values. Nevertheless, Modern Family, airing in the 21st century, is continually stereotyping women in an old fashioned manner as mothers and housewives. These lines do not meet real female ambitions or provide a satisfactory reading of today’s American women. As Bonnie J. Downotes: â€Å"the danger is not in enjoying television series but in mistaking these images for something more than the selective, partial images that they are† (Dow 214).

Innovation in Edu. Sys and Exam Reforms Essay

Introduction As it is a human nature to think about verity in each and everything in our life. Being a human it’s our joy to thing on this matter. We have changed our life style also according to our comfort. As the generation is growing it is necessary to do according innovation in education also so our coming cohort shall continue acquiring through education. As we commemorate our past people use to go to the guru for knowledge and learn the skills and activities from him. But at that time it is strongly believed if the person who is belonging from the respective field will continue with that only after the completion of his school. We can say the child of king will be a king after his father, a child of farmer will be the farmer, child of tailor will be a tailor etc. After the arrival of British rule (1700 Ad) on India the whole system got changed drastically. Now whatever we are learning is under the education system of western culture. We will discuss it in quiet deep in the project. As our work is not ending over here we have putted effort in the examination reform also. The present system of examination encourages the habit of cramming. Now a day we are even able to give and take examinations online through satellite and with the help of internet. We will discuss this topic more deeply in the project. Innovation in Education system Education system:- For India to get transformed into a developed nation in 2020.Education is an important component. Our education policy should ensure that India is transformed into a developed nation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Good teachers could generate  enlightened minds and instill confidence and will power in students to help them realize their dreams. It is important to ensure that teachers will provided with all facilities so that they can impart proper teaching to students. Importance of Education:- Education is one of the most important factors in achieving the developmental goals of the country. It is an investment in the human resources. If the fruits of education have to reach the common man, it must be adequately and properly administered. In the present age of science and technology, it has been increasingly realized that one needs to be educated not only to become a better man and better social being. Education has come to be recognized as the main instrument of socio economic changes. That is why it has been rightly said that the destiny of a nation is shaped by quantity and quality of students coming out of schools and colleges. A New trend In Education:- E-Learning fosters independent learning. The use of E-Learning in educational activities in various fields has introduced new methods to enhance and transform teaching and learning. E-Learning provides individualized attention to the students. Internet and a vast array of digital resources and content are used for the purpose. E-Learning provides vast information required for independent learning to students which otherwise is not available in the traditional facilities of classroom. E-Learning increased the quality of teaching, learning in the form of vast resources available to them. Independent learners can now learn differently according to the difference they possess. In underdeveloped countries-learning can raise the level of education, literacy and economic development. This is especially true for countries where technical education is expensive, opportunities are limited, and economic disparities exist. The biggest advantage of e-learning lies in its ability to cover distances. For an organization that is spread across multiple locations, traditional  training becomes a constraint. All trainees need to come to a classroom to get trained. Additionally, the trainee’s learning pace is not addressed as all trainees are treated as having equal abilities and there is little flexibility in terms of timing and completion of the course. Ways of teaching and learning:- Curriculum: Fundamental modifications to the curriculum often took the forefront and corresponded mostly to the challenge of catering for individual learning needs. The key words were â€Å"openness† and â€Å"flexibility†. People wanted a more open, broader curriculum providing flexibility so as to give real choices. Development of teachers: Suggestions for changes in the development of teachers mainly responded to the Challenge about training and providing support for school staff. Key concepts here were collaboration, professionalism and experimentation. Creating and managing flexibility: Once again, as with many of the points raised here, the question of creating and managing flexibility was linked to the challenge of catering for individual learning needs. Flexibility was seen in terms of time, place and learning content. Other changes: Amongst the other changes proposed, areas covered included: the provision of resources for disadvantaged areas; broadening the range of learning resources and providing access outside school via various devices; opening school, as a privileged place of learning, to the local community, to industry and to the wider world; developing distributed leadership with greater autonomy for head teachers who should take the lead in teacher development; qualitative research to explore the learning process and results of these experimental practices initiated in teacher training courses. Role of ICT in Innovation:- ICT is put to in seeking to change education. ICT is seen as a vehicle for Collaboration and contact with others at any time and place, enabling, for example, communication between parents and authorities. ICT is also seen to extend both the scope of communication but also the role of students, enabling them to collaborate and communicate with learning partners and become decision-makers in their own learning. Tools such as blogs, wikis and pod/video casting are proposed to support flexibility by working online  and making communication, edition and publishing easy across the world. ICT is also seen to encourage and help teachers by providing dynamic, easily accessible guidance and communication resources whereby they can find support and communicate with coaches and colleagues. Finally, several people pointed to the increasing use of ICT to support social networks and the potential use of these for learning. Challenges to be addressed:- Disconnect between skills provided and skills required by the industry Revision of course curricula lags behind the need of the industry Out-dated machinery/ tools and technology Skill demand of Services/ Unorganized Sector are largely unmet Unsatisfactory employability of trainees because of poor quality of training Shortage of trained instructors and low instructor training capacity in the country Low prestige attached to vocational training Critics to our education Indian Education is although cheap in the world but still a common man today in our country cannot send his ward to a good institute. Examination schedule::we will study for almost 1 year (7 months in engineering). The problem is our paper wills evacuate by a lecturer with in 1 minute, because he will get more money by correcting more papers. Grading of on student is given by calculating the marks obtained in exam which is evaluated in less than 1 minute. I think it is not correct that the of already stated concepts or formulas in text book has to rote students and copy it in exam to get marks in exam. Of course, it’s important to know it. But his capability can judge by his research done on it, his opinions, ideas based on concept what is in text book. Our syllabus will not update forever. In our society it is believed, that who got high percentage, they are super brilliants. I think second class, third class grades in engineering should cancel. Because nearly half of the students in colleges belong to that category,  which is not eligible to so many companies, some government jobs, and the most society will see them as losers. HE confidence will totally smash by experiencing these situations. Examination reforms Introduction to Education Reforms Our entire education system is centered on examinations. Evaluation means to conduct the examination and to give marks and ranks to students. Student’s knowledge is often limited to by hearting and reproducing the same in the examinations. There is no uniformity in evaluation. Different types of evaluation systems are prevailing in different Boards i.e. Government, ICSE, CBSE etc. There is no flexibility in the conducting of tests. It is rigid Board examinations are only helping in classifying students as meritorious and slow- learners i.e. in turn pass/ fail this leads to unhealthy discrimination. The tests and examinations conducted at present are only testing the memory power of the students; they are not measuring the higher order skills of learning. The examinations are mechanical Correcting and posting of marks is done routinely. There is no scope for remedial teaching and testing to know how far a student is lagging behind. Examinations are not helping in assessing the all-round development of the student that is co- curriculum social personal qualities and health status and also they are not helping to testing their level of competency. Reforms proposed in the examination system To follow what is espoused in RTE 2009. Evaluation should have a broader framework and it should not be limited to examinations alone. Exams should include student’s displays, projects, seminars, collection of information and reports. The examinations should not create fear or stress to the student Evaluation should be continuous and comprehensive and it should be the part and parcel of daily teaching learning process. It should not restrict to rote – memory. When construction of knowledge becomes primary in curriculum the evaluation should be continuous and comprehensive i.e. along with the teaching – learning process. The assessment should be based on day  to day activities. The examinations should not be restricted / limited to writing but extended to assessment tools like observation, discussion, note- taking / recording, collection of opinions etc. the assessment should not only be teacher – based but also on peer groups, parents and other. The day to day teaching learning process depends on the experiences of the children. So student’s participation should be there in this teaching – learning process. Their knowledge, understanding and their application skills should be assessed. Therefore the teachers can record this information in their teachers’ dairies and manuals. There should be co- ordination among learning evaluation and objectives. Students note books, their written exhibits and all their other objects should be treated as assessment tools. For self- evaluation of students, quality remarks check – list should be utilized. There is no need to test all the teaching items taught in the classroom. But only some important items must be checked comprehensively at random. After evaluation action plan should be prepared for improvement of the child. Reforms suggested in examinations Examinations are a part of evaluation system. Instead of 3terminal examinations, 2 should be conducted. A test is to be conducted after completion of every unit. The most important item in the test is the nature of questions. They should be above the level of rote- learning. The open – ended questions which allow the students to think and write and express their views on their own should be given importance. To evaluate these questions the indicators should be prepared. Entrance examinations and Board examinations are to be abolished. Teachers are to be encouraged to prepare their own question – papers to conduct examinations. In –service training programmes should conduct for teachers to develop their ability to make question papers innovatively. They must be given adequate skills to prepare Question – Banks. Open book system is to be introduced for languages and social studies. The same test paper is to be used after re – teaching and relearning for slow –learners /non achiever. Evaluation in co- curricular activities like art and games The tools/techniques like rating scales, checklists, observation techniques, interviews are to be used to assess the co-curricular activities like physical education, social, personal qualities, art, games, health and sports. The same things should be recorded in the progress reports of the students through grades. The school-implemented activities like wall- magazines, student dairies and teacher dairies and teacher dairies are also to be evaluated. After conducting the examinations the students progress is to be communicated to their parents as per the RTE Act 2009 children’s’ progress and achievement should also be displayed online.  The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in consultation with the Ministry of Human Resource Development and keeping in view the spirit of National Policy of Education, 1986 has decided to introduce the following education reforms:- There will be no class X Board examination i.e. 2011 for students studying CBSE’s Senior Secondary Schools and who do not wish to move out of the CBSE system after Class X. The students studying in CBSE’s Secondary Schools will, however, be required to appear in Board’s external examination because they will be leaving the Secondary School after Class X. The Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation has been strengthened in all CBSE affiliated schools i.e. October, 2009 in Class IX. The new Grading System has been introduced at Secondary School Level (for Class IX and X) effective from 2009-10 academic sessions. The Right of Children to Free & Compulsory Education Act 2009 has been enacted, which envisages significant reforms in the Elementary Education sector especially with reference to admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children in schools which conform to specified norms and standards. Appropriate policy reforms in the higher education sector have also been undertaken, Section 6 of the Central Universities Act, 2009 provides for academic reforms in newly established Central Universities. The reforms are being extended to other Central Educational Institutions also. Exam reform: Why is it needed? Because Indian school board exams are largely inappropriate for the ‘knowledge society’ of the 21st century and its need for innovation problem-solvers. Because they do not serve the needs of social justice. Because the quality of question papers is low. They usually call for rote memorization and fail to test higher-order skills like reasoning and analysis, let alone lateral thinking, creativity, and judgment. Because they are inflexible. Based on a ‘one-size-fits-all’ principle, they make no allowance for different type of learners and learning environments. Because they induce an inordinate level of anxiety and stress. In addition to widespread trauma. Mass media and psychological counselors report a growing number of exam-induced suicides and nervous breakdowns. Because while a number of boards use good practices in pre-exam and exam management there remain several glaring shortfalls at several boards. Because there is often a lack of full disclosure and transparency in grading and mark/grade reporting. Because there is need for a functional and reliable system of school-based evaluation. Conclusion It should be clear from above that the system needs serious re-examining. Whatever changes taking place in the current system are desirable but not worthless. It should be spread over all the corner of the country not only to the metro and developed area. It is acceptable that the process is quite slow but the results are fruitful. We have seen that the advantage of development and innovation is not just limited to the learner but teachers also. So the changes implemented by the  government must be communicated well, If the fruit is hidden in leafs, then it is of no use. New trends in the learning process are too good for the new learners. Moreover, they are entertaining, attractive, expectations of every students, perfect for the one who want to learn, and helpful to the teachers also in holding the attention of students. New reforms in the examination are also one of the areas under the focus of education expansion and innovation. However, there are many critics in the minds of people but they are natural, whenever there is difficulty before the face of one s/he will try to criticize the parent of that problem. We are finding many new ways to reduce those critics by developing many new methods of examine the talent in our new generation. Moreover, that the new reforms in examination have given its contribution in saving strategy also. As the pattern of paper is so simple to solve out and check out too, by that it saves time, energy, and resources also. The concept of online examination is the best innovation in this field. Students can give exams without any long procedure of filling forms and submitting it. S the best example of it. Bibliography * Alan McCluskey Chairperson of EUN’s Policy and Innovation Committee Researcher at Did@ctics, Fribourg University Editor of Connected Magazine * Information was given by the Minister of State for Human Resource Development Smt. D. Purandeswari, in the Rajya Sabha. * (Source: National Council of Education Research and Training, Education Reforms 1.1 p. 1) * References: [1] Ren Changrong. Test mode for computer-related curriculum reform of [J]. Fujian computer, 2008 (2:186-187). [2] Jiang major Contemporary German vocational education and teaching the mainstream thinking of [M]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2007. [3] Jiang major. New Theory of Vocational Education research [M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press, 2007. [4] Xiao Kun, Luo Yongwu. Employment-oriented â€Å"recursive method† to build the vocational curriculum [J]. Vocational Education Forum, 2005 (18:29-30. [5] Connor. Vocational education feasibility test mode countermeasures [J]. Modern-commerce industry, 2009 (3:203-204.